Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary
2011 Condition Report

#	Status	Rating	Basis For Judgement	Description of Findings
5.	Abundance/ Distribution		In general, mangrove and benthic habitats are still present and their distribution is unchanged, with the exception of the mangrove community, which is about half of what it was historically. The addition of causeways has changed the distribution of nearshore benthic habitats in their vicinity.	Selected habitat loss or alteration has taken place, precluding full development of living resource assemblages, but it is unlikely to cause substantial or persistent degradation in living resources or water quality.
6.	Structure		Loss of shallow (<10 meters)Acropora and Montastreae corals has dramatically changed shallow habitats; regional declines in coral cover since the 1970s have led to changes in coral-algal abundance patterns in most habitats; destruction of seagrass by propeller scarring; vessel grounding impacts on benthic environment; alteration of hard-bottom habitat by illegal casitas.	Selected habitat loss or alteration has caused or is likely to cause severe declines in some but not all living resources or water quality.
7.	Contaminants	?	Few studies, but no synthesis of information.	N/A
8.	Human Activities		Coastal development, highway construction, vessel groundings, over-fishing, shoreline hardening, marine debris (including derelict fishing gear), treasure salvaging, increasing number of private boats, and consequences of long-term changes in land cover on nearshore habitats.	Selected activities have caused or are likely to cause severe impacts, and causes to date suggest a pervasive problem.

Living Resources

The following information provides an assessment by sanctuary staff and experts in the field of the status and trends pertaining to the current state of the sanctuary's living resources:

9. What is the status of biodiversity and how is it changing?

Selected biodiversity loss has caused or is likely to cause severe declines in some but not all ecosystem components and reduce ecosystem integrity; therefore, this question is rated as "fair/poor." Recently the relative abundance and diversity across a spectrum of species has been substantially altered by both natural and anthropogenic pressures, particularly large reef-building corals, long-spined sea urchins, and large-bodied fish. Combine the changes in abundance with low recruitment rates of those same species and the likelihood that those species will rebound in abundance is questionable. Furthermore, numerous fisheries5 (e.g., lobster, crab, shrimp, sponges, fin-fish, aquarium trade) continue to remove individuals from the system, affecting sanctuary biodiversity and function. For these reasons, the trend is rated as "declining."

It is important to note that the "declining" trend rating could be open to interpretation because of the difficulty in applying a single trend rating that is representative of all individual trends in species abundance. For example, it is thought that species richness, as defined by the number of species found in a particular area, has changed little over the last four decades. Similarly, no species in the sanctuary are known to have become locally extinct during the same time period, although there are species which are threatened or endangered with extinction. At least three exotic species (described in Question 11) have also recently become established. Shifts in the relative abundance of multiple species, especially those at higher trophic levels, are indicators of compromised native biodiversity and stability in the system that can impact community and ecosystem structure and function. Understanding the degree of change in biodiversity that has occurred over time and how the coral reef ecosystem functioned in a "pre-exploitive" state can help managers and stakeholders identify realistic ecological and socioeconomic targets for maintaining or improving ecosystem services.

A historical perspective of sanctuary biodiversity suggests that many of the higher-trophic-level species, such as marine mammals and predatory fishes, were dramatically reduced by hunting and fishing prior to the sanctuary's designation. Current research on the historical ecology in the Florida Keys documents only one species extinction in the last 200 years - the Caribbean monk seal (Monachus tropicalis). Monk seals were historically ubiquitous and abundant in the Caribbean and the Florida Keys, but were hunted to extinction by the early 20th century (McClenachan and Cooper 2008). As such, the Caribbean monk seal was listed in the Endangered Species Act (1967-2008; 73 FR 63901). Other marine mammals found in the area of the sanctuary include cetaceans and manatees, although there is no historical record of those taxa being hunted or fished in significant numbers. However, fisheries for reef fishes and mollusk and crustacean invertebrates (conch, shrimp, stone crab, lobster) have existed in the Florida Keys in some cases for almost 300 years.

Numerous fish species in the sanctuary have been heavily exploited since the 18th century and have experienced population declines during the 20th century to unprecedented low population levels. Native Americans fished for reef fishes on Florida reefs long before the arrival of European settlers (Oppel and Meisel 1871). Reef fishing accelerated in the 1920s. Following growing public conflicts and sharp declines in catches, monitoring programs at the species level began in the early 1980s (Bohnsack et al. 1994a, Bohnsack and Ault 1996, Harper et al. 2000, Ault et al. 2005a). Ault et al. (1998) assessed the status of reef fish stocks and determined that 13 of 16 groupers, seven of 13 snappers, one wrasse (hogfish) and two of five grunts were overfished according to federal (NOAA Fisheries Service) standards (Figure 31). In addition, some stocks appeared to have been chronically overfished since the 1970s, with the largest, most desirable species depleted first, followed by increasingly smaller and less desirable species with time (Ault et al. 1998). The average size of adult black grouper in the upper Keys was about 40% of its 1940 value, and the spawning stock for this species was less than 5% of its historical, unfished maximum potential (Ault et al. 2001). In subsequent analyses, Ault et al. (2005a and 2005b) determined that 25 of the 34 species within the snapper-grouper complex for which sufficient data were available were experiencing overfishing. Closures of the fisheries at the state and federal levels for goliath (Epinephelus itajara; 1990) and Nassau (Epinephelus striatus; 1992) grouper remain in effect, although the goliath grouper stock continues to indicate signs of slow recovery (Porch et al. 2003, 2006) to the extent that considerable debate occurs regarding re-opening of that fishery. In its 2010 report to Congress, the NOAA Fisheries Service classified nine species that are landed in the Florida Keys as overfished (i.e., depleted below minimum standards), and 11 species as subject to overfishing (i.e., being fished at a rate that would lead to being overfished), with some overlap between the two categories (NMFS 2010) (Table 1).

Table 1. Southeast regional stocks that are subject to overfishing or are overfished as defined by NOAA Fisheries Service. Although the sanctuary does not manage fisheries, it straddles both the South Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico fisheries management council jurisdictions. The below list includes species in both the South Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico fishery management council jurisdictions as of 2009. (Source: NMFS 2010)

The resulting reduction in numbers of large fishes and loss of spawning aggregations affects ecosystem integrity and biodiversity. Former spawning aggregation sites are not functioning the way they did historically and quantitative anecdotes from experienced fishers point towards reduced numbers of spawning aggregations and fewer, smaller individuals within those that are still present. Researchers from NOAA Fisheries Service and Florida's Fish and Wildlife Research Institute have been monitoring one recovering spawning aggregation for mutton snapper (Lutjanus analis) at Riley's Hump in the Tortugas Ecological Reserve (South) since 2004. According to observers in 2009, "thousands" of mutton snapper (Lutjanus analis) aggregated for spawning purposes at this site (Figure 32; Burton et al. 2005).

Sea turtles have been hunted for centuries throughout the Caribbean and have lost essential nesting beaches throughout their range. McClenachan et al. (2006) showed that although some nesting sea turtle populations are beginning to recover, the long-term effect of reduced numbers of sea turtles and nesting beaches will delay the recovery of the green and hawksbill species in the Caribbean basin. American crocodiles also utilize components of the sanctuary for their survival. They were listed as endangered species in 1975 due to the loss of critical habitat from coastal development, but have been gradually recovering throughout its range. The species was recently upgraded on the federal listing to "threatened" but remains on the state of Florida's endangered list.

The smalltooth sawfish once ranged from New York to Florida to the U.S. Gulf Coast. It was listed as an endangered species in 2003. Its decline was the result of habitat degradation and loss and mortality resulting from both targeted fishing and by-catch from other fisheries (Carlson et al. 2007). The smalltooth sawfish was the first cartilaginous fish to be included on the Endangered Species List. Today, the population center is located in Florida Bay and the Ten Thousand Islands area of the Everglades National Park , but individuals are occasionally encountered in the sanctuary as far west as the Marquesas.

Biodiversity change is hard to measure for seabirds in the sanctuary. In recent times, no seabird species have been lost or extirpated from sanctuary waters. Nesting species, roosting species, wintering species and species migrating through are still being recorded in roughly the same numbers. The sanctuary has more information for coastal species such as magnificent frigatebirds, least terns (Sternula antillarum), roseate terns (Sterna dougallii), bridled terns (Onychoprion anaethetus), sooty terns (Onychoprion fuscatus), brown noddies (Anous stolidus) and masked boobies (Sula dactylatra), but little to no information on most pelagic species (those which spend most of their life at sea and do not breed in Florida) such as shearwaters and petrels.

Invertebrate biodiversity has changed during the last century. Studies of invertebrate populations have shown that:

• The long-spined sea urchin is considered an important herbivore on Caribbean coral reefs. Populations, especially in areas where overfishing has reduced populations of herbivorous fishes, suffered a mass mortality event in the Caribbean basin, including the Florida Keys, from 1983 to 1984 (Lessios et al. 1984, Lessios et al. 2001). This mortality event is recognized as "one of the most spatially expansive and prolonged disturbances to reef ecosystems in the region" (Carpenter 1988, Lessios 1988, 2005, Miller et al. 2008). The Florida Keys population suffered a second die-off event in 1991 (Forcucci 1994). Although long-term monitoring shows increased long-spined sea urchin occurrence and average size since 1999, there has been slow recovery of adult long-spined sea urchins in most habitats, with the exception of patch reefs (Miller et al. 2008, Chiappone et al. 2008).
• Sponge populations in hard-bottom areas have been periodically decimated since 1844 (Donahue 2008), most recently by two Synnechococcus sp. cyanobacterial blooms in 1995 and 2007. The historical sponge fishery also greatly reduced the density and abundance of certain sponge species. Over the entirety of the intensive sponge fishery (ca. 1850 to 1940), it is estimated that 1.5 billion pounds of sponges were removed from the northern Caribbean (McClenachan 2008). The decline of the sponge population has impacted ecosystem services, such as water filtration and ontogenetically important shelter habitat for fishes and invertebrates.
• Queen conch were commercially and recreationally fished until a moratorium was instituted by the state of Florida in 1985 due to concerns of overfishing. Results of a long-term monitoring program show adult queen conch density and abundance have increased at least three-fold from 1992 to 2006, but greater increases were negated due to the active hurricane seasons of 2004 and 2005 (Hunt 1987, Glazer and Delgado 2003). The ecosystem effects of a reduced queen conch population are not definitively known. However, researchers (Stoner et al. 1995, Torres 2003) have shown that queen conch strongly affect community structure, through their roles as herbivores and detritivores, by influencing the vegetative structure that provides forage and shelter for other benthic invertebrates. The removal of such a previously abundant invertebrate may also have an impact on species (e.g., Caribbean spiny lobster, loggerhead turtles, other marine snails) that use queen conch as prey.
• The commercial collection and sale of live reef species is a small but well-managed fishery in the Florida Keys (otherwise known as the marine aquarium or ornamental trade). State-wide landings in 2005 included 147,290 total finfish and 8,611,912 individual invertebrates (e.g., polychaete worms, tunicates, crabs, sea stars and anemones). The fishery has been regulated by the state fisheries agency (currently the FWC) since 1991. Although Florida Keys fishermen have been exemplary in initiating regulations for their fishery, and noting fluctuations in the variety of species they fish, there are currently no independent stock assessments for the species they target. Approximately 147 endorsements (permits) were issued for the live collection of ornamental vertebrates and invertebrates for sale in the aquarium industry in Monroe County in 2007.

Lastly, it should be noted that the status and changes to the biodiversity of habitat-forming organisms (e.g., coral, seagrass) were described in the "Habitat" section of this report.

10. What is the status of environmentally sustainable fishing and how is it changing?

The status and trend ratings for this question are based on the available scientific knowledge from published studies, unpublished data, and expert opinion for targeted and non-targeted living resources that are directly and indirectly affected by fishing. Because this is the sanctuary's first condition report, the rating combines the historical view of the potential effects of fishing activity on biological community development, and ecosystem function and integrity, with the targeted research of species-specific fisheries over the last three to four decades. The rating reflects conditions in the sanctuary but does not serve as an assessment of the status of current fisheries management practices in the region. However, the determination of the trend rating for this question reflects recent changes in fisheries management practices that may have potential beneficial effects on living resources in the sanctuary. The response to this question is a rating of "fair/poor" because fisheries extraction has caused or is likely to cause severe declines in some but not all ecosystem components and reduce ecosystem integrity. The trend is rated as "undetermined" because predictions are difficult to make regarding potential ecological gains resulting from newer fishing regulations and sanctuary zones that prohibit extraction. Benefits of recent management changes could be offset by illegal fishing practices, changing patterns and amounts of recreational fishing effort, chronic marine debris in the form of trap fishery losses and illegal casitas placement, and invasive marine species (e.g., Indo-Pacific red lionfishesPterois volitans and P. miles and orange cup coral Tubastrea coccinea). Less than 6% of the sanctuary's waters are considered "no-take."

Environmentally sustainable fishing or ecologically sustainable fishing may be defined as fishing at a level that the ecosystem can sustain without shifting to an alternative or undesirable state. To determine if environmental sustainable fishing is occurring, one has to simultaneously consider the impacts of all exploited species on an ecosystem, including its stability and resilience (Zabel et al. 2003). In addition, fishery yield and the integrity of ecosystem structure, productivity, function, and biodiversity (including habitat and associated biological communities) must also be considered. The past decade has seen a paradigm shift in the management focus of fisheries from managing individual target stocks for maximum sustainable yield to ecosystem-based fisheries management. This shift leads to a more holistic consideration of sustaining fishery yield, as well as maintenance of marine ecosystems and their function. Some fishery data were described in other questions of this document (see Questions 6 and 9) and that information should be considered along with the additional detail provided here. Generally, fishing can reduce ecosystem integrity in three ways: first, removing targeted species and killing non-target species (as bycatch) may result in cascading ecological effects (Frank et al. 2005). Second, because fishing is size-selective, concerns exist about ecosystem disruption by removal of ecologically important species such as top-level predators (e.g., groupers, snappers, sharks, jacks) and prey (e.g., shrimps, baitfish) of certain sizes. Third, fishing can stress all habitat types in the sanctuary in the form of physical impacts of fishing gear to the habitat and by introducing marine debris. For example, regular yet unintended trap loss in the lobster and stone crab trap fisheries results in trap ropes wrapping around coral heads and abrading or killing coral colonies. Combined, the two fisheries utilize approximately 815,000 traps per season in addition to an unknown number of recreational stone crab traps (five per person allowable with a Florida saltwater fishing license) have the same potential for habitat impact. In addition, lobster or stone crab traps can continue "fishing" even after they have been lost, which leads to continued mortality of marine organisms that are too large to escape the traps after capture⁶.

For the 1996 to 2006 period, Murray (2007) summarized various measures of fishing effort for Monroe County relative to "other Florida counties"(Table 2). Over this period, all measures of fishing effort declined more rapidly in Monroe County relative to all other counties in Florida, except for stone crab permits.

Table 2. Changes in commercial fishing effort in Monroe County between 1996 & 2006. (Source: in Murray 2007, data from FWC)

Generally, there is a very high exploitation rate in the Keys from both recreational effort and commercial effort. Trends in reef fish landings from 1981 to 1992 were reported for the Florida Keys by Bohnsack et al. (1994a). Depending on the year, recreational landings comprised between 40% and 66% of total landings. Reef fishes accounted for 58% of total fish landings, 69% of recreational landings, and 16% of commercial landings. Commercial landings were dominated by invertebrates (Caribbean spiny lobster, shrimp, and stone crabs), which comprised 63% of total landings. But trends in recreational and commercial fishing pressure in Monroe County/Florida Keys are in decline due to a number of fishery and extra-fishery factors, including stagnant ex-vessel values (the revenue the fisherman receives for his catch) resulting from low demand, higher landside prices such as cost of living, gear, crew, etc., and less waterfront space availability (Leeworthy and Wiley 1996, Leeworthy 1996, Leeworthy et al. 2010, Leeworthy and Morris 2010, Murray 2007, Sharp et al. 2005). Commercial fishing catch declined from 21.8 million pounds in 1995-1996 to 9.6 million pounds in 2008, a 56% decrease. Fishing trips also declined 56% over this period, from 67,422 trips in 1995-1996 to 29,681 trips in 2008. This was a greater decline than what occurred across the entire state of Florida. Florida's total catch declined about 34% during the same period, while trips declined about 47%. The decline was due in part to changes in fishery management designed to reduce overall fishing effort, as well as decreasing demand for Caribbean spiny lobsters, which is the dominant fishery in the Florida Keys. The Florida Keys historically account for 89% of commercial Caribbean spiny lobster catch. (FWRI 2010)

Ault et al. (1998) assessed the status of multiple reef fish stocks in the Florida Keys and determined that 13 of 16 groupers, seven of 13 snappers, one wrasse (hogfish) and two of five grunts were overfished, according to federal (NOAA Fisheries Service) standards (see Figure 31). They suggested that some stocks appeared to have been chronically overfished since the 1970s, and that the Florida Keys fishery exhibits classic "serial overfishing" in which the largest, most desirable species are depleted by fishing (Ault et al. 1998), followed by sequentially smaller species. Ault et al. (2001) found that the average size of adult black grouper (Mycteroperca bonaci) in the upper Keys was about 40% of its 1940 value, and that the spawning stock for this species is now less than 5% of its historical, unfished maximum. In subsequent analyses, Ault et al. (2005a, 2005b) determined that, of 34 species within the snapper-grouper complex for which sufficient data were available, 25 were experiencing overfishing. Another game fish that has declined in numbers is the bonefish (Albula vulpes), which is at approximately 5% of historic levels primarily because of habitat and food loss (Ault 2008). Although additional, long-term monitoring is necessary to adequately understand the impacts of new fishery regulations, initial research has shown that certain fish species (e.g., black and red groupers, Epinephelus morio, and mutton snapper) have responded positively to the combination of stronger regulations and larger ecological reserves within the sanctuary. These results will be further detailed in the "Response" section of this document.

The commercial and recreational lobster fisheries are regulated by the FWC. Due to the Spiny Lobster Trap Certificate Program (370.142)7 the total number of commercial lobster traps allowed in the fishery has declined from about 750,000 in 1993 and 1994 to about 480,000 in 2010 (FWC Fishery Statistics). The Florida lobster trap fishery is unique in that it allows the use of sub-legal lobsters as a "live attractant." The consequences of this practice are well-documented in literature and include increased stress and mortality from confinement to traps (SEDAR 8 2005) and potential spread of a lethal lobster virus (Behringer et al. 2008). Fishery managers suspect that more protection for sub-legal-sized lobsters should improve landings in Florida's lobster fishery (Matthews 2001), and improve the fishery sustainability.

The queen conch is a large, marine gastropod that inhabits the tropical western Atlantic including the Florida Keys. It once supported significant commercial and recreational fisheries in south Florida; however, the ease of capture and the desirability of the shell and meat resulted in a severe depletion of the local population to the point that a ban was instituted in 1985 in state waters and then in 1986 in federal waters. When the ban was established, less than 6,000 adult conch remained in the Florida Keys (Glazer and Delgado 2003). Since then, ongoing surveys have shown a slow and very limited recovery with an estimated 33,500 adults in 2010 (FWC unpublished data).

In addition to the traditional "hook and line" and trap fishing pressure, biodiversity in the sanctuary is also affected by the aquarium trade. The collection and sale of living corals and hard substrate with attached organisms ("live rock") has been prohibited in state waters of Florida since 1995 and in federal waters since 1997. The state and federal government both regulate a small but viable fishery based in live rock aquaculture, where geologically unique limestone is placed on sandy, barren ocean floor areas and acts as a recruitment site for hard and soft corals and other marine invertebrates. This fishery remains commercial in nature because the mature live rock is sold in the aquarium trade.

Similar to live rock aquaculture, the collection and sale of live reef species comprises a small but well-managed fishery, most notably in the Florida Keys. This fishery has been regulated by the FWC since 1991, and there is currently a moratorium on the issuance of new marine life endorsements (permits). Approximately 80 commercial endorsements were renewed for the live collection of ornamental vertebrates and invertebrates for sale in the aquarium industry in Monroe County during each year from 2006 to 2009. Combined commercial landings in the Keys during the same time period included 291,672 total finfish and 14,584,831 individual invertebrates (e.g., polychaete worms, tunicates, crabs, sea stars and anemones) (source: FWC). Florida Keys commercial fishermen have initiated regulations for their fishery, recognizing fluctuations in the variety of species they fish. Concerned fishermen of the Keys continue to work with the FWC to suggest rule changes to ensure sustainability of the marine life fishery. However, there is also a recreationally allowable "catch" of marine life, and there is no way to account for the level of effort or extraction this sector represents at the current time. Lastly, but most importantly, there have been no stock assessments of any of the species collected, thus it is impossible to determine whether this fishery is environmentally sustainable over the long term.

In a recent study by Rhyne et al. (2009), the Florida Marine Life Fishery landing data from 1994 to 2007 was analyzed for all invertebrate species, and it was discovered that of the 9 million individuals collected in 2007, 6 million were grazers. The results suggest the number of grazers greatly exceeds the number of specimens collected for ornamental purposes, representing a significant categorical shift, positioning the invertebrate ornamental fishery for a collapse. More targeted research would help managers determine what effect both sectors of the marine life fishery are having on ecosystem biodiversity and integrity to help more effectively manage these resources.

Although seabirds are an integral component of the food web, more studies are needed to better assess fishing impacts on prey availability in coastal and seabird populations. Many bird species forage in or around the marine environment where they can become entangled in fishing gear, hooks and line to the extent that they are unable to feed or move about freely. Bird rescue organizations regularly treat cormorants, pelicans, herons and gulls that have become entangled or injured by fishing gear.

Shrimp are important in the diet of a wide range of species including many fish and bird species; however, they are also exploited by both recreational and commercial fisheries. Recreational "shrimping" usually occurs during the wintertime, but the effort and harvest levels associated with this sector are not known. Commercially, shrimp are harvested for both food (the pink shrimp Farfantepenaeus duorarum) and as bait for the recreational fisheries. For example, commercial landings of pink shrimp in the Florida Keys averaged 1,165,120 lbs in the years 2006-2010 (FWC statistics). Though landings have fluctuated over the last five years, it is generally not known how shrimp fishing impacts ecological sustainability.

11. What is the status of non-indigenous species and how is it changing?

Although the threats of introduced aquatic species to habitats they colonize is often unknown beforehand, some can have serious detrimental impacts, including competition with native species for food and space, alteration of habitat, predation on native species, and introduction of diseases to which native species have no resistance (Ruiz-Carus 2006). Non-indigenous species in the sanctuary are occurring with increasing frequency and may inhibit full community development and function and may cause measurable but not severe degradation of ecosystem integrity; therefore, this question is rated "fair" and "declining." More than 30 species of non-native marine fishes have been documented in Florida waters (Schofield et al. 2009), with more than 18 species of non-native marine fish being documented in Miami/Dade, Broward and Palm Beach counties in southeast Florida (REEF database 2006). Aquarium "dumping" has been identified as the likely source of these introductions given that most of the species are popular ornamental fish.

The sanctuary has been witness to the non-indigenous Pacific orbicular batfish (Platax orbicularis), which was controlled, and the Indo-Pacific red lionfishes, which are presently the only non-native marine fish species known to be established along the coast of Florida (Schofield et al. 2009) (Figure 33). Red lionfish, formerly residents of the western Pacific, Red Sea, and eastern Indian Oceans only, were first reported in the 1980s along south Florida and are now well established along the Southeast U.S. and the Caribbean (Ruiz-Carus 2006, Morris et al. 2009). Reports of lionfish in the sanctuary began in January 2009, and between January 2009 and July 2010 there were approximately 500 reported lionfish sightings in the Florida Keys (250 of those were confirmed and removed from sanctuary waters) (Morris and Whitfield 2009). Since then, sighting and removal efforts have been continuously increasing. Juvenile lionfish (approximately 30 millimeters in length) were observed in spring 2010 at several locations in Florida Bay (C. McHan, FWC, pers obs. and M. Butler, Old Dominion University, pers. comm.), suggesting a pervasive invasion is occurring across all the habitats of the Florida Keys ecosystem. The increasing abundance and wider distribution of lionfish in the South Atlantic Bight, Bermuda, Florida, and the Bahamas indicates that lionfish are the first marine fish species to successfully establish a breeding population in the tropical waters.

The venomous protective spines of lionfish, combined with their feeding habits, unique reproduction and few predators, contribute to their successful invasive abilities. Lionfish are ambush predators, can threaten local ecosystems by altering the structure of native reef fish communities by out-competing native reef organisms and reducing forage fish biomass (Morris and Whitfield 2009). Impacts from lionfish could include direct competition with groupers for food and predation on reef fish and crustaceans (Ruiz-Carus 2006, Albins and Hixon 2008, Morris and Akins 2009). Also, lionfish pose a danger to divers and fishermen - stings from the venomous spines of the fish may result in pain, swelling, numbness and sometimes more severe effects including paralysis and systemic effects.

One coral species is invasive and could potentially impact ecological integrity. The range of the non-indigenous orange cup coral (Tubastraea coccinea) (Figure 34), has expanded since it was first observed offshore of Key Largo in 1999 and now includes the Gulf of Mexico, South Florida, and the Florida Keys, including the sanctuary (Fenner and Banks 2004, Ferry 2009, Shearer 2010).

Observations in the Caribbean and the Gulf of Mexico show that this species inhabits natural reef substrates and can cause tissue necrosis and partial mortality of native corals (Creed 2006). However, in general, orange cup coral appears primarily on artificial substrates such as submerged steel wrecks (Fenner and Banks 2004, Ferry 2009, Shearer 2010). It is suspected that these artificial structures played a major role in the spread of this species. A study by Ferry (2009) indicates that orange cup coral has not yet become established in the lower Florida Keys. However, the potential for this species to impact reef communities is high due to high proliferation rates resulting from the production of asexual larvae, the ability to out-compete native species and limit substrate available for recruitment of native species, plus the lack of a natural predator.

The Red-tipped Sea Goddess, (Glosssodoris sedna), a nudibranch native to the tropical Pacific (Figure 35), has become well-established in the Florida Keys (K. Nedimyer, Coral Restoration Foundation, pers. comm.). Over the last three to four years it has become seasonally abundant in a variety of habitats. Although they have become well established, it is unknown if they pose a threat to any resources in the sanctuary.

12. What is the status of key species and how is it changing?

The key species or taxa in the sanctuary selected for use in this report include stony corals, seagrasses, queen conch, Caribbean spiny lobster, long-spined sea urchin, the snapper-grouper complex and sea turtles. These species are important for their ecological roles, and long-term datasets are available for assessing changes for these species. With the exception of seagrasses, historical data for each of these groups show substantial declines in abundance. Therefore, the status of key species in the sanctuary is rated as "poor" because the reduced abundance of selected keystone species has caused, or is likely to cause, severe declines in ecosystem integrity; or selected key species are at severely reduced levels and recovery is unlikely. The trend is rated as "not changing" because of the reduced abundance of a limited number of key species in each habitat type. Although there are very encouraging results of increased sizes and density of select species within certain sanctuary marine zones, forecasting how these changes will affect their long-term status is challenging.

Stony Corals

As discussed in earlier questions, long-term monitoring of nearshore coral habitats indicates a decline in both species richness and coral cover at the stations surveyed, and no significant recruitment has occurred since the monitoring program began in 1996 (Ruzicka et al. 2010). The declines in abundance of two of the principal Caribbean reef-building corals, staghorn and elkhorn coral, are often-cited as examples of the changes in western Atlantic reefs that have occurred over the past several decades (Aronson and Precht 2001, Gardner et al. 2003). The causes of these declines, which began in the late 1970s, include large-scale factors such as coral bleaching and disease, especially white-band disease, as well as smaller-scale effects resulting from storms and predation by corallivorous snails and damselfishes. Both staghorn and elkhorn corals were under consideration for addition to the U.S. Endangered Species List since the early 1990s and were formally added as threatened in 2006 based on Caribbean-wide population declines and poor recovery (Williams et al. 2008). The more recent declines of the massive star corals (Montastraea spp.) have also led to the overall loss of coral cover both in the Florida Keys (Ruzicka 2010) and in other parts of the Caribbean (Hughes and Tanner 2000, Edmunds and Elahi 2007). As of July 2010, the NOAA Fisheries Service was conducting a status review of 82 additional coral species for ESA consideration, seven of which occur in the Caribbean and in the sanctuary (Agaricia lamarcki, Dendrogyra cylindrus, Dichocoenia stokesii, Montastraea annularis, Montastraea faveolata, Montastraea franksi, Mycetophyllia ferox).

Seagrass

Long-term monitoring of seagrass has shown changes in coverage and nutrient composition at some monitoring stations. These changes are consistent with model predictions of nutrient-induced changes of these systems. Although no significant overall loss of seagrass coverage in the sanctuary has occurred since monitoring began, there have been significant changes in the composition of the seagrass species found in benthic communities (Fourqurean 2009). Furthermore, shallow seagrass beds are regularly subject to injury by vessel groundings.

Queen Conch

Although queen conch densities are relatively high within the sanctuary, the modest spatial extent of the aggregations results in low estimates of overall abundance. Queen conch populations are showing signs of gradual recovery from their low abundance estimates in the 1980s. Scientists from the Fish and Wildlife Research Institute are currently investigating the cause of chronic reproductive failure of nearshore aggregations. Although queen conch have been protected from fishing since 1985, in both federal and state of Florida waters, poaching still occurs on a regular basis (G. Delgado, FWC, pers. comm.).

Caribbean Spiny Lobster

Caribbean spiny lobster in the Florida Keys experience intense fishing pressure within Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, both from a heavily capitalized commercial fishery and a recreational fishery that is the most intensive such fishery on the globe (Sharp et al. 2005). In addition to the direct removal of lobsters by the fishery, each fishing sector also directly affects the survival rates of Caribbean spiny lobster before they recruit to the fishery. The commercial lobster trap fishery's practice of confining sub-legal-sized lobsters within traps to serve as attractants results in an estimated 10% mortality rate among these lobsters (SEDAR 8 2005). The recreational fishery results in the catch-and-release of a large number of lobsters below the legal size limit, causing injuries that result in increased mortality (Parsons and Eggleston 2007).

Although the no-take zones within the sanctuary were not designed as a fishery management tool, results from an FWC five-year monitoring project concluded that Sanctuary Preservation Areas (SPAs) were too small to protect Caribbean spiny lobsters from the fishery, but the larger Western Sambo Ecological Reserve (WSER) did function to some degree as a fishery reserve (Cox and Hunt 2005). There, the mean size of legal-sized lobsters and the frequency of occurrence of lobsters were significantly larger than those commonly encountered within the fished areas of the sanctuary, having increased steadily after WSER establishment. Cox and Hunt (2005) also concluded the increased frequency of encountering atypically large lobsters in the areas adjacent to the WSER (including the nearby fishery-exploited areas) suggested lobsters were likely emigrating from the WSER, thus this zone may serve to some degree to enhance fishery landings. The WSER does not encompass all of the habitats utilized by adult Caribbean spiny lobsters during their life history, and inclusion of the adjacent outlier reef would serve to protect lobsters from fishery exploitation (Cox and Hunt 2005).

Long-spined sea urchins

The long-spined sea urchin Diadema antillarum was considered a most important herbivore (grazer) because it helped to control the amount of algae on Western Atlantic coral reefs (Lessios et al. 2001). The demise of this once-ubiquitous echinoid is considered one of several factors responsible for the changes observed on Florida Keys reefs. Historical surveys of D. antillarum prior to the 1983 and 1984 Caribbean-wide mass mortality event are limited for the Florida Keys and consist of data collected at a few seagrass and fore-reef sites, mostly from Indian Key to reefs offshore of Key Largo. However, the available data indicate that densities were at least as high as four or five individuals per 10 square feet (one square meter) (Chiappone et al. 2008). The Caribbean-wide mass mortality began in the Florida Keys during the summer of 1983 and presumably led to a 90% or greater reduction in population size. From 1983 to 1990, there were no published studies ofD. antillarum density and size structure. Surveys carried out in the early 1990s suggested that the population was recovering, with densities on shallow spur and groove reefs approaching one-tenth (i.e., 0.5-0.6 individuals per 10 square feet) of their pre-1983 level, and a size distribution dominated by larger (>2 inches, or 5 centimeters) TD) individuals (Forcucci 1994). In contrast to other wider Caribbean reef ecosystems, a second mortality event struck the Florida Keys D. antillarumpopulation beginning in April 1991, with similar morbidity symptoms as the 1983 event that reduced the population to one-hundredth of its pre-1983 level (Forcucci 1994). Surveys conducted within one year of the 1991 mortality indicate that very low densities (<0.1 per 10 square feet) and small test sizes (<1 inch, or 3 centimeters) in shallow fore-reef habitats characterized the D. antillarumpopulation (Forcucci 1994), a pattern that continued for the next decade (Chiappone et al. 2002 b, c).

Although monitoring conducted over the past decade has detected increases in both the density and size structure of long-spined sea urchins on patch reefs, a similar trend has not been detected on offshore reef habitats. Overall, there has been slow recovery of long-spined sea urchins compared to pre die-off densities (Miller et al. 2008). Over an 11-year period (1999-2010), researchers examined densities and test sizes of D. antillarum and other sea urchins at more than 1,100 Florida Keys sites spanning 217 miles (350 kilometers), encompassing multiple habitat types from inshore to the deeper fore-reef slope. Surveys since 1999 indicate that current densities are still well below one individual per square meter and the maximum site-level density recorded during the 11-year period was only 0.33 individuals per 10 square feet (one square meter) (Figure 36). However, there has been a notable positive shift in their average and maximum size (Chiappone et al. 2008). Population recovery to pre-1983 levels could take decades, if not longer. Algal assemblages, in most habitats, despite reduced D. antillarum, are dominated by diminutive algal turfs, crustose coralline, and to a lesser extent macroalgae, suggesting that herbivorous fish grazing is critical for maintaining low algal standing crop on Florida Keys reef. Moreover, observations of newly recruited juvenile long-spined sea urchins have been largely confined to reef-rubble zones. However, because of the highly dynamic nature of the substrate resulting from wave and storm surge in this habitat, the mortality rate of these recruits is potentially substantial.

Groupers and other fishes

Previous sections of this report review the status of select species of finfish (see Questions 9 and 10). Even though sanctuary zones were not established to protect individual species, there have been encouraging observations of increased abundance and sizes of select finfish inside Tortugas Ecological Reserve (a no-take zone). Groupers in the Florida Keys have been historically exploited, and in a study by Ault et al. (1998) it was determined that 13 of 16 grouper species were overfished according to NOAA Fisheries Service standards. As of 2010, the status of grouper species has improved and according to the NOAA Fisheries Service, only three species of grouper (snowy, red, and gag) are still considered to be overfished in the same area (NOAA Fisheries Service fourth quarter 2010 "overfished map").

Specifically, the goliath grouper was targeted by commercial and recreational fishing since the late 1800s. They are extremely susceptible to exploitation due to a mixture of life history traits such as slow growth, long life, delayed sexual maturity, and the pattern of spawning aggregations. These characteristics, in association with escalating fishing pressure, led to the fishery closure in 1990 and the subsequent listing of goliath grouper as a candidate for the Species of Concern List under the U.S. Endangered Species Act. Fishery closures and designating some sanctuary zones as no-take have helped to increase the goliath grouper population as well as expand its geographic distribution. However, it is not clear as to when the population may be fully recovered, or when the fishery will be reopened if it were to be (Collins 2009, Porch et al. 2003, 2006). It is hoped that more examples of positive finfish responses to sanctuary zones continue, but the damaging ecological effects of the invasive red lionfishes could counteract management efforts.

Another study on the social structure of hogfish (e.g., harems) showed a difference between Western Sambo Ecological Reserve and the adjacent "fished" areas; spawning was only observed inside Western Sambo Ecological Reserve during a recent study (Muñoz et al. 2010).

Sea turtles

Sea turtle species frequenting the Florida Keys that are listed as endangered under the U.S. Endangered Species Act include the green, leatherback, hawksbill, and Kemp's Ridley turtles. Green sea turtles were hunted for their meat to the brink of extinction during the late 1800s and early 1900s in south Florida, and their numbers in the Florida Keys continue to remain low today. Systematic monitoring of green turtle nests on islands of the Key West National Wildlife Refuge show nearly a doubling since 1990; however, the number of nests still remains low (USFWS unpubl. data). These low population numbers affect seagrass beds, as these reptilian herbivores serve an important role in maintaining seagrass habitat quality by keeping the organic matter from accumulating in the sediments through continuous grazing. Green sea turtles are also affected by fibropapillomatosis (FP), a disease that forms large tumors on soft and hard tissues of turtles (Herbst 1994,Ene et al. 2005). In the Indian River Lagoon, Florida Bay, and the Florida Keys, 50-70% of the green turtles are affected (Ene et al. 2005) and since the early 1980s, the percentage of green turtles stranded in Florida with FP has been increasing each year (Foley et al. 2005).

Loggerhead turtles, listed as threatened, also frequent the Florida Keys. However, an updated analysis of Florida's long-term loggerhead sea turtle nesting data reveals that loggerhead nest counts have declined 25% over the last 10 years (Witherington et al. 2009). Systematic monitoring of loggerhead turtle nests on islands of the Key West National Wildlife Refuge indicates a more than 50% decline since 1990. This marked decline in the number of breeders and nests, low productivity, a high proportion of false crawls, tidal flooding coupled with ongoing beach erosion, and sea level rise collectively threaten the future of the nesting loggerhead turtle population in the sanctuary (USFWS unpubl. data). In 2010, NOAA Fisheries Service and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service proposed to list nine Distinct Population Segments (DPS) of loggerhead sea turtles under the U.S. Endangered Species Act. Under this proposal, the South Atlantic Ocean DPS is being considered to go from "Threatened" status to "Endangered".

In January 2010, the Florida Keys experienced record low temperatures, causing many sea turtles to become stunned by cold-water temperatures. More than 250 cold stunned turtles were recorded in January 2010, the majority of which were green turtles, with smaller numbers of loggerheads and Kemp's Ridleys. NOAA and the FWC helped to coordinate the rescue of hundreds of sea turtles to help them recover from the cold shock. Rescued turtles from the Florida Keys were housed and rehabilitated at the Sea Turtle Hospital in Marathon. The hospital is a non-profit facility that has been in operation since 1986.

Seabirds

The populations of most of the state and federally listed seabird species seem to be stable. The least tern and roseate tern nesting populations are stable but low in numbers. The roseate tern population dropped drastically after the 2005 hurricanes but has since rebounded. This was notably due to the disappearance of Pelican Shoal in the lower Keys. That site was a coral-rubble and sand island where roseate and bridled terns were nesting and the island is now underwater. The birds have shifted to nesting on roofs of large buildings in the Keys. There are no similar ground nesting sites (islands) throughout sanctuary boundaries (R. Zambrano, FWC, pers. comm.).

Manatees

The West Indian manatee includes two distinct subspecies, the Florida manatee (Trichechus manatus latirostris) and the Antillean manatee (Trichechus manatus manatus). The Florida manatee's range is confined to the southeastern U.S., while Antillean manatees are found throughout the Caribbean. Due to a variety of human activities, like coastal development, this important herbivore has declined in numbers and their distribution is patchy throughout Florida.

A U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service survey estimated there were at least 3,800 Florida manatees in 2009. Even though this population number is low compared to historic records, the population is stable due to effective management of human-related threats (e.g., establishing watercraft speed limits to prevent propeller strikes). However, the Florida manatee population was negatively affected by the prolonged cold event in January 2010, when 244 deaths (13 of which were newborns) were recorded statewide (FWC statistics).

13. What is the condition or health of key species and how is it changing?

The condition and health of key species in the sanctuary is rated as "fair/poor" because the comparatively poor condition of selected key resources makes prospects for their recovery uncertain. For example, the effect of diseases on hard and soft corals has caused substantial declines in coral cover (biomass) over the last two decades, yet there has been no significant coral recruitment recorded at any long-term monitoring station. Likewise, long-spined sea urchins have yet to recover from a 1980s Caribbean-wide disease outbreak. Generally, the health of selected key species has been compromised by factors including exposure to algal blooms (including harmful algal blooms), fishing, entanglement in active and lost fishing gear, ingestion of marine debris, and disease. Due to persistence, and accumulating effects of these problems, the trend is considered to be "declining."

Large, persistent phytoplankton blooms resulting in part from eutrophic conditions have been associated with fish kills and sponge and seagrass die-offs (Butler et al. 1995, Fourqurean and Robblee 1999, Hunt and Nuttle 2007). Cyanobacterial blooms have been especially prevalent in central Florida Bay during the past two decades and at times have been carried by the tidal currents to the ocean side of the Keys. Blooms are not necessarily triggered or sustained by a single change in nutrient load; rather, a combination of multiple biotic and abiotic factors contribute to their intensity and duration. Unfortunately, there is currently insufficient data to predict cyanobacterial bloom initiation or longevity, thus there is a need to integrate existing biological, climatological, and oceanographic research efforts so that predictive models can be further developed and refined.

A health concern for key species in the sanctuary, including marine mammals, seabirds, sea turtles and corals, is interaction with active and lost fishing gear. Results from a recent study on marine debris prevalence in the sanctuary showed "marine debris, most of which is derelict angling and trap gear, is ubiquitous in the sanctuary, even within no-take zones. The sheer amount of debris recovered is testament to an increasingly visited and exploited marine ecosystem" (Miller et al. 2008). Marine debris poses entanglement threats not only to highly migratory species (e.g., sea turtles and manatees) but also to sessile species (e.g., coral and sponges). Lost fishing gear can wrap around coral heads and cause injury, mainly from abrasion caused by wave action. Likewise, sponges can be literally cut in half by the combination of derelict gear and wave energy. In addition, ingestion of plastic marine debris is a health concern for a number of sea turtle and seabird species in the sanctuary. Although there are no quantitative studies on the frequency and severity of this occurring, it is well known that sea turtles will ingest plastic bags and balloons, mistaking the debris as prey items.

Corals throughout the Caribbean and Atlantic region have suffered from numerous diseases over the past several decades, and disease has been implicated in the demise of a number of reef-building species. Studies in the Florida Keys track disease prevalence at monitoring stations throughout the archipelago. For example, the Fish and Wildlife Research Institute's Coral Reef Evaluation and Monitoring Project has shown the prevalence of diseases to vacillate over time, and from 2002 to 2006 generally decreased at monitored stations within the sanctuary and at the Dry Tortugas. The number of stations affected with white diseases peaked to more than 80% in 2002, subsided to 35% in 2005, then increased again to 50% in 2006. The number of stations affected with "other" diseases peaked to 90% in 2001, but declined to 57% by 2006 (Ruzicka et al. 2009). A second study, which was conducted in August 2006, focused on diseases affecting two species of coral (elkhorn and staghorn coral) that had been recently listed as threatened on the U.S. Endangered Species List. One hundred and seven sites along approximately 29 miles (46 kilometers) of coastline in the upper Keys were surveyed, and no evidence of white-band or any other diseases affecting either species was observed (Miller et al. 2008). Though they are the best datasets available to resource managers, it should be noted that these types of annual surveys do not necessarily capture the real trends of disease impacts (or trends thereof) to coral populations because of the acute nature of the disease outbreaks.

Other diseases⁸ impacting key species include fibropapillomatosis and PaV1. Fibropapillomatosis (FP) most commonly affects juvenile green turtles in nearshore habitats. It is estimated that 50% to 70% of the green turtles in the Indian River Lagoon, Florida Bay, and the Florida Keys are affected and since the early 1980s, the percentage of green turtles stranded in Florida with FP has been increasing 1.2% each year (Ene et al. 2005, Foley et al. 2005). Another key species impacted by disease is Caribbean spiny lobster, which is susceptible to the Panulirus argusvirus 1 (PaV1 (Behringer et al. 2006).

Studies on queen conch have shown nearshore populations are no longer reproductive. Nearshore water quality is suspected to be the cause of nearshore individuals experiencing rapid loss of gonadal tissue (Delgado et al. 2004, Spade et al. 2010).

The condition or health of seabirds is unknown, although their populations seem to be stable. However, as previously mentioned, birds are as susceptible to contaminants (e.g., oil, plastic, heavy metals), as are fish and corals. Impacts to small fish will obviously reduce food for terns and thereby reduce nesting productivity (R. Zambrano, FWC, pers. comm.).

During January and February 2010, the Florida Keys and the rest of Florida experienced severe, extended cold periods that caused drastic drops in seawater temperatures, especially in nearshore waters of Florida and Biscayne Bays. Such bouts of extreme cold are uncommon, but have occurred in the recent past (1977). The cold fronts during this time period moved in rather quickly, causing fish kills in nearshore waters and cold-water bleaching of corals that resulted in nearly 100% mortality of the colonies at the locations surveyed. Results from remote sensing data (NOAA and USF) and in-water surveys (managed by the Nature Conservancy) indicated that the coldest water was in the bays and flowed to the ocean side. Mid-channel reefs in Hawk Channel were particularly affected by cold-water stress and underwent extensive bleaching. Studies have shown that these same reefs are known to be more resilient to summertime warm-water bleaching events than many other coral communities within the sanctuary (see Response section, under climate change). Many sea turtles, manatees, and American crocodiles were also affected and suffered mortality. The long-term impacts of the loss of these animals, along with the numerous fish and coral losses, are unknown at this time and somewhat difficult to predict.

14. What are the levels of human activities that may influence living resource quality and how are they changing?

Human activities affect the quality of living resources in the sanctuary directly and indirectly. Direct impacts to living resource quality include commercial and recreational fishing, vessel grounding, anchoring, propeller scarring, disposal of marine debris, and disturbance from recreational diving, snorkeling, or boating. Indirect activities result in nonpoint source pollution and illegal discharges.

Many activities, such as those related to vessel groundings, caused or are likely to cause severe impacts to sanctuary resources, and cases to date suggest a pervasive problem. Therefore, the response to this question is rated as "fair/poor." However, the trend is rated as "not changing" because all water-based human activities, whether engaged in by residents or by visiting tourists, have been decreasing in Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary since the 1990s (Leeworthy 1996, Leeworthy et al. 2010, Leeworthy and Morris 2010).

Despite the human population decrease and overall reduction in fishing in the Florida Keys since the 1990s, heavy recreational and commercial fishing pressure continues to suppress biodiversity, affecting the abundance and distribution of key species (see Question 12). Fishing stress can disrupt living resource quality by removing ecologically important top-level predators and, therefore, shifting reef ecosystem dynamics (Frank et al. 2005).

Fishing methods can also impact living resource quality. For example, damage to the benthos can result when traps or mobile fishing gear, such as trawls, are used. Marine debris, in the form of derelict fishing gear, can destroy benthic organisms and entangle mobile fauna, including endangered species, such as manatees and sea turtles (Donohue et al. 2001). When combined with high wave energy, lost, or, "ghost" crab and lobster traps can damage corals, and sever sponges (Chiappone et al. 2005) over a large area due to trap movement in high-wind-induced wave events (Lewis et al. 2009). In a recent report by Miller et al. (2010), a survey in the Florida Keys generally found similar or greater amounts of marine debris, especially derelict fishing gear, in no-take zones, when compared to baseline data from 2000, 2001 and 2008. Entanglement and vessel strikes also pose a threat to marine mammals (such as dolphins and manatees) and sea turtles because they often inhabit overlapping fishing areas.

In addition to fishing threats, vessel groundings occur regularly within the sanctuary, causing measurable impacts to living resources. Since 1998, almost all groundings have involved small (<50 feet, or 15 meters), privately owned vessels. Groundings often result in significant injury to corals, seagrasses, and other benthic organisms (NOAA 2007). Furthermore, vessels that try to "power off" the grounding site can cause significantly more injury.

In the Florida Keys, the number of reported vessel groundings decreased annually from 2002 to 2006 (from 721 groundings in 2002 to 301 in 2006), but it is not possible to determine if this trend is a result of fewer boaters using the resource because of higher fuel costs, increased boater awareness of the sensitivity of the environment, or a reduced willingness to call for assistance if boaters run aground. Generally, there has been no proportional shift in impact to different living resource types: approximately 14% of groundings impact coral, an estimated 85% impact seagrasses, and about 1% impact hard-bottom habitat (Donahue et al. 2008). Because corals and seagrasses grow in shallow water they are also susceptible to a variety of other direct impacts from smaller commercial and recreational vessels such as damage from the propeller, hull, engine, and anchoring. Despite the fact that the number of reported vessel groundings in the Florida Keys is decreasing, anchor damage, groundings, and propeller scarring still occur frequently and often result in immediate resource devastation with long-term impacts (Farrer 2010).

From the beginning of 1994 through 2010, the Florida Department of Environmental Protection reported approximately 2,500 incidents of spills in the Florida Keys. The annual mean number of petroleum and chemical spills was around 150 over the same period, with diesel fuel, motor oil, and gasoline representing 49% of these incidents, collectively. Spills in the sanctuary can have an impact on living resource quality. Whether associated with fuel discharges from small vessel groundings, or larger oil or chemical spills resulting from offshore shipping traffic, offshore drilling operations, or land-based sources, spills have the potential to adversely impact corals, foraging birds, marine mammals, fishes, seagrasses and mangroves.

Diver impacts from recreational snorkeling or scuba diving can negatively impact corals in locations that are heavily utilized. Other ecotourism activities in the Florida Keys, such as dolphin-watching boats, can disrupt natural activities of these animals.

Even though the human population recently decreased in the Florida Keys, indirect impacts from urbanization and use of coastal areas will continue to impact living resource quality. Runoff from nonpoint sources of pollution diminishes water quality. Illegal discharges (e.g., discharging or depositing sewage into all waters) can also create excessive amounts of nutrients, stimulating the rapid growth of algae, which in turn smother and kill live coral.

Both direct and indirect impacts can adversely affect living resource quality in the Florida Keys. However, over the long term, localized direct impacts may be overwhelmed by the adverse and wide-ranging indirect effects of anthropogenically caused climate change resulting in sea level rise, abnormal air and water temperatures, and changing ocean chemistry.

Living Resources and Trends

Status:   Good     Good/Fair      Fair      Fair/Poor      Poor       Undet.  

Trends:

▲ Conditions appear to be improving.
- Conditions do not appear to be changing.
▼ Conditions appear to be declining.
? Undeterminted trend.
N/A Question not applicable.